CS 2850/FS 2195A: ROMAN HISTORY OVERVIEW

Traditional date of the founding of Rome was April 21 753 BCE; there were two mythological traditions (Romulus and Remus: The twins were members of the royal house of Alba Longa— sons of Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor deposed by Amulu/ Aeneas: the Trojan hero who escaped to Italy to found Rome (his destiny). His son Julius or Ascanius founded the city of Alba Longa and became its first king— this is how the two myths were joined (there was a series of kings between Ascanius and Romulus' grandfather Numitor). By combining the two myths, the Romans were able to associate themselves with the grand and respectable literary/ mythological/ historical traditions of the Greeks (even though they claimed to be Trojans, not Greeks). Romulus peopled the new city with criminals and stolen women. He was the first of the seven kings of Rome (753-510 BCE is known as the Regal Period). Lucius Junius Brutus (Superbus' nephew) expelled the kings and liberated Rome in 509 BCE and became her first consul (along with L. Tarquinius Collatinus, cousin to Superbus). Sextus Tarquinius was the aggressor. After 510 BCE Rome was ruled by an oligarchy and became a Republic. 510 -31 BCE are the dates of the Roman Republic.

Over the next few centuries, Rome set about making herself mistress of all Italy and places overseas. In the third century BCE, Rome began to clash with the North African city of Carthage, both of whom feared the other's growing power. The First Punic War dates 264-241 BCE and was mainly fought in Africa and Sicily; Rome was victorious and made Carthage pay heavy war indemnities. Carthage began to expand in Spain to make up for their loss of Sicily; their power south of the river Ebro was recognized by Rome. The Carthaginian leader Hannibal however conquered the Spanish town of Saguntum in 219 BCE, a Roman ally, whereupon Rome declared war. The Second Punic War (218- 201 BCE) was fought mainly on Italian soil; Hannibal proved himself a dangerous foe by crossing over the Alps with his men and elephants. There followed (until 204 BCE) a series of skirmishes with Hannibal in Italy, including an approach on Rome (unsuccessful; also Rome's allies remained loyal). The Romans were also fighting the Carthaginians in Spain; in 205 they were defeated. Hannibal was recalled to Africa and Rome took the war to North African soil. In 202 at the Battle of Zama Carthage was decisively defeated and Rome imposed a series of crippling demands (no foreign wars, surrender of navy, heavy $ payments). 200-146 Rome was also at war overseas, with Greece and parts of the near East; in 146 she had an eastern empire in addition to her Italian one. Third Punic War 149-146 BCE started because the Numidian king Masinissa provoked Carthage into a war not approved by Rome; Carthage was destroyed and razed by the Romans and Carthaginian territory became the Roman province of Africa.

133 BCE begins a century of bloody civil strife which would eventually lead to the death of the Republic. The Gracchi brothers (Tiberius and Gaius) began a reform movement to redistribute senatorial lands to the landless poor; Tiberius was slain in 133 BCE. His brother Gaius renewed the question and he and his followers were slain by senatorial supporters in 121 BCE. Despite problems at home, Rome continued building her empire in Africa and the near east. 91-89 BCE marks the Social War, the war Rome had with her Italian allies because Rome refused to grant them full citizenship rights. A concession on the part of Rome ended the war and in 89 the allies were given Roman citizenship.

The first century BCE comprises a series of powerful Roman generals at war with each other. During much of this century Rome is therefore embroiled in civil war. Sulla, deprived of his command of the armies overseas in favor of Marius, marched on Rome (a bloodbath ensued as Sulla butchered his enemies), and established a dictatorship 82-79 BCE. Marius' supporters scattered outside of Italy; some to Spain; the general Pompey the Great fought them there. 73-71 slave uprising under Spartacus. Due to overseas commands, Pompey grows in power; as does another Roman politician named Gaius Julius Caesar. In 60 BCE Pompey (army) and Caesar (brains) along with Crassus (money) form the First Triumvirate (by private mutual agreement; no legal sanction) in order to get the senate to accede to their demands. Caesar gets permission to make war in Gaul; he is there 58-51 BCE. Caesar and Pompey grow increasingly distanced both personally and politically; both Pompey and the Senate fear Caesar's growing power and the loyalty of his armies. Caesar refuses to disband his armies; in 49 he crosses the Rubicon (the river separating Gaul from Italy), and Rome is once more plunged into civil war. 49-46 BCE civil war with Pompey; Pompey fled to Egypt and was killed in 48 BCE (Casear met Cleopatra VII here as well). Pompey's supporters were conquered in 46; Caesar makes himself dictator for life. On 15 March 44 BCE he was murdered by a senatorial faction (led by M. Junius Brutus; Cassius) who feared his growing power. The Senate originally condoned the act. But Caesar's nephew Octavian (then 19) and Mark Antony, Caesar's supporter, made war on Brutus and Cassius and defeated them in 42. Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus then formed the Second Triumvirate, meant to restore the Republic, but mainly to get rid of personal enemies. More proscriptions. Octavian and Antony grow increasingly competitive (and distant); their break made final with the marriage of Antony to Cleopatra (repudiating Octavia). In 31 BCE Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in the East. in 30 BCE Egypt became a Roman province; Octavian, although he gave power back to the SPQR had so many titles and powers granted to him that he became Rome's first emperor, although he cloaked what were in effect monarchical powers with Republican forms and a respect for tradition. After 27 BCE he was known as Augustus.

The Principate or the Empire exists 31- BCE to 410 CE. Augustus was the first emperor, ruling 27 BCE- 14 CE. His family members (the Julio-Claudians) succeeded him as emperor until 68 CE (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero). After a year of civil war, another family succeeded in establishing themselves as emperors (the Flavians; 69-96 CE): Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. The Adopted Emperors come next (the "five good" 96-192 CE): the Senate appoints Nerva after the assassination of Domitian; then comes Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus fell victim to a palace insurrection (led by his sister); 193 was another year of civil war. The Severans were the next family to head the throne: Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (193-217). Caracalla's assassination led to the proclamation of his nephew Elegabalus as emperor (218-222); after his murder, Severus Alexander (222-235). After this Rome is plunged into the Third Century Crisis ("soldier emperors" made and destroyed by the army; about 50 in total); Diocletian rules 284-305 and introduces the Tetrarchy, in which the Roman empire is divided up into East and West and ruled by two men each. But this system failed because of the dynastic ambitions of the individual rulers; and in 306-337 Constantine the Great is the sole ruler (312 his conversion to Christianity). There follows a series of more or less Christian emperors; in 391 Christianity became the official Roman religion; all pagan cults were outlawed. Goths invaded Rome in CE 410.

Background knowledge:

• Location of Rome in Italy. The central plain is Latium (this is where Rome is). The plain to the south is Campania (Mt. Vesuvius is here)— the resort spot of ancient Italy, and an important source of food and wine. In Greece, no one polis had enough land or people to dominate, but Rome conquered Latium and acquired a large population and vast amounts of land.

• Roman topography The site of Rome was on the Tiber river, a fertile area, a defensible position, with access to the sea. The seven hills (Capitoline, Aventine, Palatine, Esquiline, Quirinal, Viminal, Caelian) of Rome were separated by marshes which flooded frequently.

• City of Rome: The Forum was the centre of Rome’s political and legal life (lawcourts and the Senate house were here); the Palatine Hill was where the emperor and the well-to-do had residences.

• Patricians/plebeians: basically, well-born and not so well born. In Hollywood movies it’s mainly a question of wealth. Another social division is that of ‘senatorial’ and ‘equestrian;’ the upper and business classes of Rome, respectively.

• The Senate: a council of elders recruited from ex-magistrates, and numbering 300 members until 100 BCE. The Senate was the most powerful force in ancient Republican Rome.

• Two consuls were elected annually by the Roman people (occasionally replaced by a dictator in times of national emergency; they also were the army generals). The consuls had to abdicate at the year's end; the power of one consul to veto prevented the abuse of power by either. And they were not outside the rule of law forever.

• The tribunes were elected by the plebeians and were sacrosanct; could assist a plebian against arbitrary patrician authority. There were about 10. The tribunes also had the right of intercessio or veto against any official act.

• The praetorian guard was the emperor’s bodyguard (there were three cohorts stationed in Rome, about 1200 armed men), which was also supposed to keep order in the Roman streets (in the absence of a police force).

TIMELINE OF ROMAN HISTORY

753 BCE Rome founded by Romulus and Remus
510 BCE end of the Regal period; start of the Roman republic. Two annual consuls elected.
200-146 BCE Rome at war overseas
146 BCE Rome consolidates her overseas and her African empire
133 BCE death of Tiberius Gracchus
121 BCE death of Gaius Gracchus
91-89 BCE Social War
82-79 BCE Sulla’s dictatorship (Marius’ supporters scatter)
73-71 BCE slave uprising under Spartacus
60 BCE First Triumvirate (Pompey, Crassus, Caesar)
58-51 BCE Caesar in Gaul
49 BCE Caesar crosses the Rubicon
49-46 BCE Pompey and Caesar at war
48 BCE Pompey killed in Egypt; Caesar meets Cleopatra VII
March 15, 44 BCE Caesar murdered in Rome
42 BCE Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus form the Second Triumvirate. Octavian and Antony grow increasingly competitive
31 BCE Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII at the battle of Actium
27 BCE- 14 CE Augustus emperor; Roman imperial period begins
14 –68 CE Julio-Claudian emperors (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero)
69 –96 CE Flavian emperors (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian)
96 – 180 CE five ‘good’ emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus Pius)
192 CE Commodus murdered
193 – 217 CE the Severan emperors (Septimius Severus, Caracalla)
218-235 CE Elegabalus and Severus Alexander emperors
235 –284 CE ‘Third century crisis’
284- 305 CE Diocletian emperor; division of Roman empire into East and West
306-337 CE Constantine the Great emperor
391 CE Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman empire
410/476 CE end of the Western empire