CS 136: ROMAN HISTORY

Regal period: 753-510 BCE

Republic: 510-27 BCE

Empire: 27 BCE- 410 CE

Traditional date of the founding of Rome was April 21 753 BCE; two mythological traditions (Romulus and Remus: The twins were members of the royal house of Alba Longa— sons of Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor deposed by Amulu/ Aeneas: the Trojan hero who escaped to Italy to found Rome (his destiny). His son Julius or Ascanius founded the city of Alba Longa and became its first king— this is how the two myths were joined (there was a series of kings between Ascanius and Romulus' grandfather Numitor). By combining the two myths, the Romans were able to associate themselves with the grand and respectable literary/ mythological/ historical traditions of the Greeks (even though they claimed to be Trojans, not Greeks).). Romulus peopled the new city with criminals and stolen women. He was the first of the seven kings of Rome (753-510 BCE): this period is referred to as the Regal Period. Lucretia: Lucius Junius Brutus (Superbus' nephew; slide) expelled the kings and liberated Rome in 509 BCE and became her first consul (along with L. Tarquinius Collatinus, cousin to Superbus). Sextus Tarquinius was the aggressor. After 510 BCE Rome was ruled by an oligarchy and became a Republic.

Over the next few centuries, Rome set about making herself mistress of all Italy and places overseas. In the third century BCE, Rome began to clash with the North African city of Carthage, both of whom feared the other's growing power. The First Punic War dates 264-241 BCE and was mainly fought in Africa and Sicily; Rome was victorious and made Carthage pay heavy war indemnities. Carthage began to expand in Spain to make up for their loss of Sicily; their power south of the river Ebro was recognized by Rome. The Carthaginian leader Hannibal however conquered the Spanish town of Saguntum in 219 BCE, a Roman ally, whereupon Rome declared war. The Second Punic War (218- 201 BCE) was fought mainly on Italian soil; Hannibal proved himself a dangerous foe by crossing over the Alps with his men and elephants. There followed (until 204 BCE) a series of skirmishes with Hannibal in Italy, including an approach on Rome (unsuccessful; also Rome's allies remained loyal). The Romans were also fighting the Carthaginians in Spain; in 205 they were defeated. Hannibal was recalled to Africa and Rome took the war to North African soil. In 202 at the Battle of Zama Carthage was decisively defeated and Rome imposed a series of crippling demands (no foreign wars, surrender of navy, heavy $ payments). 200-146 Rome was also at war overseas, with Greece and parts of the near East; in 146 she had an eastern empire in addition to her Italian one. Third Punic War 149-146 BCE started because the Numidian king Masinissa provoked Carthage into a war not approved by Rome; Carthage was destroyed and razed by the Romans and Carthaginian territory became the Roman province of Africa.

133 BCE begins a century of bloody civil strife which would eventually lead to the death of the Republic. The Gracchi brothers (Tiberius and Gaius) began a reform movement to redistribute senatorial lands to the landless poor; Tiberius was slain in 133 BCE. His brother Gaius renewed the question and he and his followers were slain by senatorial supporters in 121 BCE. Despite problems at home, Rome continued building her empire in Africa and the near east. 91-89 BCE marks the Social War, the war Rome had with her Italian allies because Rome refused to grant them full citizenship rights. A concession on the part of Rome ended the war and in 89 the allies were given Roman citizenship.

The first century BCE comprises a series of powerful Roman generals at war with each other. During much of this century Rome is therefore embroiled in civil war. Sulla, deprived of his command of the armies overseas in favor of Marius, marched on Rome (a bloodbath ensued as Sulla butchered his enemies via the proscriptions), and established a dictatorship 82-79 BCE. Marius' supporters scattered outside of Italy; some to Spain; the general Pompey the Great fought them there. 73-71 slave uprising under Spartacus. Due to overseas commands, Pompey grows in power; as does another Roman politician named Gaius Julius Caesar. In 60 BCE Pompey (army) and Caesar (brains) along with Crassus (money) form the First Triumvirate (by private mutual agreement; no legal sanction) in order to get the senate to accede to their demands. Caesar gets permission to make war in Gaul; he is there 58-51 BCE. Caesar and Pompey grow increasingly distanced both personally and politically; both Pompey and the Senate fear Caesar's growing power and the loyalty of his armies. Caesar refuses to disband his armies; in 49 he crosses the Rubicon (the river separating Gaul from Italy), and Rome is once more plunged into civil war. 49-46 BCE civil war with Pompey; Pompey fled to Egypt and was killed in 48 BCE (Casear met Cleopatra VII here as well). Pompey's supporters were conquered in 46; Caesar makes himself dictator for life. On 15 March 44 BCE he was murdered by a senatorial faction (led by M. Junius Brutus; Cassius) who feared his growing power. The Senate originally condoned the act. But Caesar's nephew Octavian (then 19) and Mark Antony, Caesar's supporter, made war on Brutus and Cassius and defeated them in 42. Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus then formed the Second Triumvirate, meant to restore the Republic, but mainly to get rid of personal enemies. More proscriptions. Octavian and Antony grow increasingly competitive (and distant); their break made final with the marriage of Antony to Cleopatra (repudiating Octavia). In 31 BCE Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in the East. in 30 BCE Egypt became a Roman province; Octavian, although he gave power back to the SPQR had so many titles and powers granted to him that he became Rome's first emperor, although he cloaked what were in effect monarchical powers with Republican forms and a respect for tradition. After 27 BCE he was known as Augustus.

The Empire existed until 410 BCE. Augustus was the first, ruling 27 BCE- AD 14. His family members (the Julio-Claudians) succeeded him as emperor until AD 68 (Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero). After a year of civil war, another family succeeded in establishing themselves as emperors (the Flavians; 69-96): Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. The Adopted Emperors come next (the "five good" AD 96-192): the Senate appoints Nerva after the assassination of Domitian; then comes Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus fell victim to a palace insurrection (led by his sister); 193 was another year of civil war. The Severans were the next family to head the throne: Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (193-217). Caracalla's assassination led to the proclamation of his nephew Elegabalus as emperor (218-222); after his murder, Severus Alexander (222-235). After this Rome is plunged into the Third Century Crisis ("soldier emperors"); Diocletian rules 284-305 and introduces the Tetrarchy, in which the Roman empire is divided up into East and West and ruled by two men each. But this system failed because of the dynastic ambitions of the individual rulers; and in 306-337 Constantine the Great is the sole ruler (312 his conversion to Christianity). There follows a series of more or less Christian emperors; in 391 Christianity became the official Roman religion; all pagan cults were outlawed.